Factors affecting local plant knowledge in isolated communities from Patagonian steppe: Metacommunity theory is revealed as a methodological approach.

The Patagonian steppe is a refuge for several indigenous peoples who live in relatively isolated communities, depending heavily on natural resources for their activities, health, and food security. The local ecological knowledge is a reservoir that generates full wellbeing and for which it must be the object of protection and local development. In this study, we aimed to find which factors can influence local ecological knowledge from a metacommunity on the Patagonian steppe. We analyzed variation in knowledge about cultivated and gathered plants used as medicinal, edible, and firewood according to multiple factors widely discussed in the ethnobiological literature: age, gender, formal education, occupation, indigenous identity, contact with urban centers, use of biomedicine, hunting, and handcrafted textile production. We conducted semi-structured interviews with local experts, accessed by the snowball technique. We found that formal education is a key factor in the variation of local ecological knowledge among people. In addition, we found that knowledge varies between people who practice activities inside and outside the home, concentrating knowledge between cultivated and gathered plants, respectively. Our urbanization proxies did not point to an influence of this factor on local knowledge, but specialists living in a larger community with signs of internal urbanization processes had much less knowledge. Our results allowed us to visualize the importance of studying metacommunities as a whole, to verify complexities and intersections of overlapping factors. Studies in metacommunities open up a range of possibilities for ethnobiological analysis.

Why do people use exotic plants in their local medical systems? A systematic review based on Brazilian local communities.

Efforts have been made to understand the processes that lead to the introduction of exotic species into local pharmacopoeias. Among those efforts, the diversification hypothesis predicts that exotic plants are introduced in local medical systems to amplify the repertoire of knowledge related to the treatment of diseases, filling blanks that were not occupied by native species. Based on such hypothesis, this study aimed to contribute to this discussion using the context of local Brazilian populations. We performed a systematic review of Brazilian studies up to 2011 involving medicinal plants, excluding those studies that presented a high risk of bias (because of sampling or plant identification problems). An analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) was conducted in different scales to test for differences in the repertoire of therapeutic indications treated using native and exotic species. We have found that although there is some overlap between native and exotic plants regarding their therapeutic indications and the body systems (BSs) that they treat, there are clear gaps present, that is, there are therapeutic indications and BSs treated that are exclusive to exotic species. This scenario enables the postulation of two alternative unfoldings of the diversification hypothesis, namely, (1) exotic species are initially introduced to fill gaps and undergo subsequent expansion of their use for medical purposes already addressed using native species and (2) exotic species are initially introduced to address problems already addressed using native species to diversify the repertoire of medicinal plants and to increase the resilience of medical systems. The reasons why exotic species may have a competitive advantage over the native ones, the implications of the introduction of exotic species for the resilience of medical systems, and the contexts in which autochthonous plants can gain strength to remain in pharmacopoeias are also discussed.

Medicinal plant knowledge in a context of cultural pluralism: A case study in Northeastern Brazil.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The study of plant use in contexts of migrations can give important insights to cultural evolution, since people face rapid changes in their environments and often start interacting with native dwellers, both constituting forces that can lead to change. Therefore, this study focused on medicinal plant knowledge and transmission in order to understand what happens to such knowledge when people from several regions converge to a single place already inhabited by native people. METHODS: The study was carried out in the rural community of Caeté-Açu (known as Capão Valley), placed in the state of Bahia (NE Brazil). Native and migrant people's knowledge on medicinal plans was accessed with a free listing. People were also asked about whom in the community once taught them about medicinal plants. Four groups (native, regional migrants, national migrants and international migrants) were compared in terms of number of cited plants, plant repertoires and knowledge transmission. For each group we also ran simple regressions between age and number of cited plants and residence time and number of cited plants. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: We found no differences among groups in terms of number of known species. However, plant repertoires differ in some extent among groups. While migrants claim to have learnt with both native people and other migrants, most native claim to have learned mainly with other natives. Age influences plant knowledge only for the natives, what strengthens evidence that this group's knowledge is based on experience while migrants'' knowledge is based on an active search. Residence time in the community did not influence migrants' knowledge. CONCLUSION: Native and migrant people have differences in their ways of acquiring medicinal plant knowledge and less popular species are also different between groups. However, we can observe a tendency of fusion and indissolubility of migrant and native knowledge since the new generations are in contact with both sources.

Current use of wild plants with edible underground storage organs in a rural population of Patagonia: between tradition and change.

BACKGROUND: Edible plants with underground storage organs (USOs) are neglected resources. We studied the local ecological knowledge edible plants with (USOs) in rural populations of North-Patagonia in order to establish how people are utilizing these plants. Some aspect of corpus-praxis-cosmos complex associated to the local ecological knowledge was documented and discussed. In addition, variation in this ecological knowledge due to age, gender, family structure, ethnic self-determination was also evaluated. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 51 inhabitants in order to study the relationship between the current use of plants with USOs and the age, sex, family group composition and ethnic self-identification of interviewees. In addition, the Cultural Importance Index for each species was calculated. RESULTS: The current richness of known species in these populations is a total of 9 plants. Plants with USOs tend to be used more frequently as the age of the interviewee increases. Women and men showed no differences in the average richness of species cited. The interviewees who share their homes with other generations use these plants more frequently than those who live alone. Our results indicate that the interviewees who identified themselves as belonging to the Mapuche people use these plants more frequently. CONCLUSION: For the Mapuche people, wild plants have constituted material and symbolic resources of great importance in their historical subsistence. In addition, they are currently being redefined as elements which present a connection with ancestral practices, produce a strong relationship with the 'land', and become markers which identify the 'natural' (historical) ways of their people; these are key elements in the current political processes of identity revaluation. This research is valuable to stimulate cultural revival and health promotion programs in the communities with their own local, cultural food.

Plantas silvestres con órganos subterráneos comestibles: transmisión cultural sobre recursos subutilizados en la Patagonia (Argentina) / Wild plants with edible underground storage organs: cultural transmission about neglected resourcesin Patagonia (Argentina)

En este trabajo documentamos el conocimiento y uso de plantas con órganos de almacenamiento subterráneos comestibles (POAS). Evaluamos los mecanismos de transmisión cultural por los que se difunde dicho conocimiento en 2 poblaciones rurales del Noroeste de la Patagonia argentina. Realizamos entrevistas (N = 34), observación participante y recolección de plantas. Los datos fueron analizados de forma cualitativa y cuantitativa. Un total de 6 especies son conocidas y actualmente 3 son utilizadas. La recolección ocurre mientras se realizan otras actividades como la cría del ganado o la búsqueda de plantas combustibles o medicinales. Los órganos subterráneos, en general, se consumen crudos in situ. El aprendizaje sobre las POAS ocurrió en la infancia por observación e instrucción por parte de adultos, principalmente las madres y las abuelas. La transmisión horizontal en contextos lúdicos también posee un papel importante. La singularidad de los contextos de uso y de aprendizaje confiere fragilidad a la continuidad de estos saberes y el mantenimiento de las prácticas de uso de las POAS.

In this study we documented the knowledge and use of wild plants with edible underground organs (PEUO). We have also evaluated the cultural transmission mechanisms in two rural populations of NW Argentinean Patagonia. Thirty-four informants were interviewed about this topic and they became part of participant observation and gathering join actions. Data were analyzed by quali and quantitative approaches. In total, 6 species are known by people, but only 3 species are used at present. Gathering occurs meanwhile other rural activities, such as cattle raising, medicinal plant collection or fuelwood gathering. Edible underground organs are generally consumed raw in situ. Cultural learning about plants with edible underground organs occurs in the childhood including observation and instruction activities from adults, mainly mothers and grandmothers. Horizontal transmission in ludic contexts has also an important role. The singularity about the learning and use contexts, give a certain fragility in the continuity in the practice of use of PEUO.

Does plant species richness guarantee the resilience of local medical systems? A perspective from utilitarian redundancy.

Resilience is related to the ability of a system to adjust to disturbances. The Utilitarian Redundancy Model has emerged as a tool for investigating the resilience of local medical systems. The model determines the use of species richness for the same therapeutic function as a facilitator of the maintenance of these systems. However, predictions generated from this model have not yet been tested, and a lack of variables exists for deeper analyses of resilience. This study aims to address gaps in the Utilitarian Redundancy Model and to investigate the resilience of two medical systems in the Brazilian semi-arid zone. As a local illness is not always perceived in the same way that biomedicine recognizes, the term "therapeutic targets" is used for perceived illnesses. Semi-structured interviews with local experts were conducted using the free-listing technique to collect data on known medicinal plants, usage preferences, use of redundant species, characteristics of therapeutic targets, and the perceived severity for each target. Additionally, participatory workshops were conducted to determine the frequency of targets. The medical systems showed high species richness but low levels of species redundancy. However, if redundancy was present, it was the primary factor responsible for the maintenance of system functions. Species richness was positively associated with therapeutic target frequencies and negatively related to target severity. Moreover, information about redundant species seems to be largely idiosyncratic; this finding raises questions about the importance of redundancy for resilience. We stress the Utilitarian Redundancy Model as an interesting tool to be used in studies of resilience, but we emphasize that it must consider the distribution of redundancy in terms of the treatment of important illnesses and the sharing of information. This study has identified aspects of the higher and lower vulnerabilities of medical systems, adding variables that should be considered along with richness and redundancy.

Complejos vegetales comestibles y medicinales en la Patagonia Argentina: sus componentes y posibles procesos asociados / Edible and medicinal plant complexes in Patagonia Argentina: components and possible associated processes

Este trabajo presenta resultados de un estudio sobre la presencia de complejos vegetales en la flora medicinal y comestible mapuche de la Patagonia Argentina. A partir de una revisión bibliográfica y datos de campo, se reconocieron diez complejos recurrentes en la región, conformados por especies nativas y exóticas. Los nombres de cada complejo llevan la etiqueta de sus componentes exóticos. En la mayoría de los casos las especies exóticas son plantas cultivadas, con mayor versatilidad utilitaria y disponibilidad ambiental que las nativas. Sin embargo, la mayoría de los componentes nativos son plantas de gran consenso de uso a nivel regional. Los componentes de cada complejo comparten características morfológicas, organolépticas, utilitarias y, en seis casos, pertenecen a la misma familia. Se discute la dinámica y complejidad de los sistemas clasificatorios tradicionales en interacción con elementos exóticos a lo largo del tiempo. Se concluye que los complejos estudiados son el resultado de factores tanto quimio-taxonómicos como socioculturales y ambientales.

Ethnoecology of Oxalis adenophylla Gillies ex Hook. & Arn.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: We studied the ethnoecological knowledge of medicinal Oxalis adenophylla in 3 rural villages of north Patagonia, Argentina. To evaluate links between use frequency, ethnoecological knowledge, sociocultural variables and the conservation status of this plant. MATERIALS AND METHOD: Forty informants were interviewed in relation to their knowledge, use, perception and the ecology of Oxalis adenophylla. Sociocultural variables were also documented, such as age, gender, size of family group living in the house, economic activities and ethnic self-determination. The abundance and availability of these plants were estimated in two villages, by measuring the number of plants per area, their weight and the relation between time invested and biomass collected. We tested frequency of use and age with Spearman׳s rank correlation coefficient. The relation between use frequency and gender, family group, economic activities, and ethnic self-determination of the informants was tested with the Mann Whitney non parametric test. An index of ethnoecological knowledge was constructed and correlated with use frequency through Spearman׳s rank correlation. To estimate conservation status we established a local risk index, taking both intrinsic and extrinsic parameters for this species into account. RESULTS: Regionally, Oxalis adenophylla is a plant known for its medicinal, alimentary and ornamental properties, but it has been poorly studied from a pharmacological point of view. Locally, the leaves of the plant are harvested for the preparation of "tortillas", which are stored and consumed in the cold months of the year for the treatment of flu fevers (95% of informants). Informants know the value of its root as a nutrient source and 35.8% reported its consumption. Use is sporadic and involves the harvesting of a mean of one root per year, which is eaten raw in-situ. Only 12% of informants mentioned the plant׳s ornamental feature. The ethnoecological knowledge of Oxalis adenophylla included references to specific environments where the plant grows, its phenology and morphological and organoleptic characteristics, appropriate times for harvesting, and animals that forage for this species. The informants with the greatest ethnoecological knowledge harvested leaves and roots most frequently. The frequency of use did not differ in relation to age or gender. In contrast, frequency of use was the highest when the informant lived with several generations at home, maintained traditional animal husbandry practices and when they considered themselves as belonging to the Mapuche people. Informants perceived low abundance and availability of the plant in the environment, restricted by the great distances involved in obtaining them, seasonality, and in particular, difficulty in finding the roots. Informants believe that the plant is sensitive and it should be harvested in such a way as to ensure no damage to the whole plant, allowing resprouting. Our ecological measurements agreed with this perception. The local risk index for the plant was medium. CONCLUSION: In Patagonian Argentina, Oxalis adenophylla is a multipurpose species widely used for its medicinal properties but less for its edible roots and ornamental features. In the rural communities where we worked, frequency of use seems to depend on individual ethnoecological knowledge, the practice of indigenous worldview, living in households interacting with other generations and maintaining the activity of cattle raising. Locally, the main risk for the plant is the particular environment where it grows, characterized by slopes vulnerable to erosion. The human practice of local use could promote the conservation of this species through the understanding of its sensitivity to harvesting, and its insipient cultivation. This research shows the importance of obtaining a general overview of useful wild species used by local people.

Patterns of medicinal plant use by inhabitants of Brazilian urban and rural areas: a macroscale investigation based on available literature.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Although the relationship between local people and plants may be idiosyncratic, some human behaviors are common to different communities and can be influenced by cultural and environmental factors. Thus, this study drew upon a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate if there are patterns of medicinal plant use in different Brazilian ethnobotanical studies and if these patterns are influenced by the urbanization or ecosystems where the studies were conducted. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The factors evaluated concerned the origin of the species used (native vs. exotic), plant habit (woody vs. non-woody) and plant parts (permanent and non-permanent). Two kinds of analysis were performed: the integrative and the meta-analytical. RESULTS: The factors varied depending on the ecosystems in which the studies were conducted. In the Amazon, Cerrado and Caatinga, native and woody medicinal species dominated; conversely, this pattern was not the case for the Atlantic Forest and Pampas ecosystems. Permanent plant parts were predominant in the Cerrado, and considering only native plants, permanent parts dominated in the Amazon, Cerrado and Caatinga. Urbanization did not significantly affect these patterns. Additionally, the species relative importance (RI) did not change as a function of the ecosystem or the degree of urbanization. CONCLUSIONS: The phenomena observed in this study can be explained in light of the chemical ecology and historical and cultural aspects of the species, and the findings have important implications for bioprospecting and conservation.

Does the selection of medicinal plants by Brazilian local populations suffer taxonomic influence?

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The analysis of the influence of taxonomic affiliation on the selection of medicinal plants by Brazilian local populations can help elucidate theoretical aspects of medicinal plant selection. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ethnobotanical medicinal plant studies were compiled and the resulting medicinal flora was compared to the total angiosperm flora with a Bayesian approach and the IDM model. RESULTS: A total of 35 families were considered to be overused and six were classified as underused for the Bayesian approach. On the other hand, the IDM model considered 13 families as overused and five as underused (all of them were also highlighted by the Bayesian approach). A high overuse level of Bixaceae, Amaranthaceae, Anacardiaceae and Smilacaceae was recorded for both Bayesian and IDM model, while Orchidaceae, Melastomataceae, Eriocaulaceae, Poaceae and Bromeliaceae were considered as underused for both analyses. The most dissimilar body system in terms of family composition was 'mental and behavioral disorders'. It was also found that the body systems are different from one another in the proportion of taxonomic groups, which could indicate chemical specificity in the treatment of diseases. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate that the chemical specificity of taxonomic groups directly influences medicinal plant selection. Moreover, when data presented here are compared to other studies, there is clearly an overuse pattern for families like Lamiaceae, Rosaceae and Euphorbiaceae and an underuse pattern for Poaceae and Orchidaceae.

Soluciones locales y flexibilidad en el conocimiento ecológico tradicional frente a procesos de cambio ambiental: estudios de caso en Patagonia / Local solutions and flexibility in traditional ecological knowledge in the face of environmental change processes: case studies in Patagonia

En este trabajo analizamos dos estudios de caso patagónicos que muestran la percepción de pobladores rurales acerca de los cambios ambientales y las soluciones locales, la flexibilidad de conocimientos y las prácticas en el uso de vegetales sustanciales para la vida cotidiana: las plantas leñateras y las medicinales. Se realizaron entrevistas semi-estructuradas y libres en comunidades pequeñas de ascendencia criolla y Mapuche- Tehuelche en la meseta de la provincia de Chubut (Lagunita Salada y El Escorial) y de Río Negro (Pilquiniyeu del Limay). Se evaluó la percepción de los cambios ambientales en en relación al uso de plantas combustibles y medicinales. Se relevó la utilización actual de 45 especies medicinales (46% exóticas) y 27 especies combustibles (18% exóticas). Los resultados sugieren que los pobladores, dentro del abanico de posibilidades, aplican sus saberes tradicionales con innovaciones tales como las forestaciones peridomésticas o los invernaderos, en donde se observa la utilización de especies útiles de origen exótico que generan indirectamente una menor presión sobre los recursos nativos. Estas soluciones locales indican procesos de resiliencia, desarrollados en un corto período de tiempo, articulando el conocimiento ecológico tradicional con las nuevas circunstancias socio-ambientales.

Resilience and adaptation in the use of medicinal plants with suspected anti-inflammatory activity in the Brazilian Northeast.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: This study uses the utilitarian redundancy model as a basis to investigate issues related to the preference for plants native to the Caatinga used as anti-inflammatories by respondents from the community of Carão in rural Pernambuco, Brazil. MATERIALS AND METHODS: For this purpose, 49 respondents and 24 native plants used as anti-inflammatories were selected from a database built by previous studies in this study area. Interviews with respondents were conducted by applying the checklist-interview technique and by presenting photographs of plants, which were ordered according to plant preference for each type of inflammation mentioned. After elaborating each list of preferences, we inquired as to the criteria used for the construction of the lists. A salience index was calculated to determine the most- and least-preferred species, and principal component analysis (PCA) was used to identify the most significant criteria used by the respondents to indicate the preferred plants for anti-inflammatory use. RESULTS: We identified 37 subcategories or inflammatory conditions, most of which were associated with disorders of the genitourinary (8 conditions), digestive (7) and respiratory (4) systems. Subcategories with the highest level of redundancy include "wound" (79.1% of species), "cut" (66.6%) and "uterus" (66.6%), and five non-redundant conditions were identified (only one species). We obtained approximately 300 lists and 18 choice criteria. PCA analysis showed that seven species were most preferred by the respondents, as they showed the highest salience values, and that the preferred criterion was "treatment effectiveness". CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that inflammation is a complex collection of disorders consisting of several subcategories. Furthermore, respondents preferred different treatments for different inflammatory conditions, which pose a challenge for future pharmacological studies that aim to assess the biological activity of anti-inflammatory plants. Preferences were very specific, focused on a small number of species and mainly related to therapeutic effectiveness.

Uso de recursos herbolarios entre mapuches y criollos de la comunidad campesina de Arroyo Las Minas (Río Negro, Patagonia Argentina) / Use of medicinal plant resources in Mapuche and Criollo inhabitants of the rural community of Arroyo Las Minas (Río Negro, Argentina)

This work investigates wild medicinal plant use in a rural population of Northwest Patagonia. Arroyo Las Minas population is composed by families with different cultural identitites. Biogeographical origin and differential use between Mapuches and Criollos were focused in this work.. Open and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 17 inhabitants. Among the medicinal plants used in this population, native flora was best represented than the exotic one. The Mapuche inhabitants utilized more total richness (particularly native species) of medicinal plants than the Criollos. Cultural identity (i.e. self-recognition as Mapuche) and time of interaction with the local flora seems to influence the present use of the medicinal plants in this population.

Este trabajo indaga acerca del uso de plantas silvestres medicinales usadas en una pequeña población campesina del noroeste patagónico. La población Arroyo Las Minas está compuesta por familias con diferente auto-reconocimiento cultural. En este estudio se enfoca en aspectos relacionados con el origen biogeográfico de los recursos utilizados y se analiza si el uso de plantas varía entre mapuches y criollos. Se realizaron entrevistas abiertas y semi-estructuradas a 17 personas del paraje. La flora nativa se encuentra mejor representada que los elementos exóticos en la herbolaria de esta población. Los pobladores mapuches utilizan una mayor riqueza de plantas medicinales, y de nativas en particular en comparación con los pobladores criollos. El auto-reconocimiento cultural y el tiempo de interacción con la flora son aspectos que parecen influir en el uso actual de plantas medicinales en esta población.